The Dutch Republic was unique in 17th-century Europe. The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, as the conglomeration of the seven northern provinces was officially named, won its independence after an extended period of Spanish dominance. The Dutch nation came into being, bringing forth a unique form of society. For the first time in Europe, the middle class rose to power. The burghers gained wealth and authority. They oversaw a worldwide network of seafaring trade routes that gave rise to the Dutch Golden Age. Trade and commerce prospered. The art market flourished as never before, with the middle class as the new clientele. These citizens held no interest in mythological, classical, or religious paintings, but commissioned works that celebrated every day, familiar scenes. The burghers preferred genre painting, landscapes, seascapes, still lifes, portraits, among other subjects. These trendsetting artworks found their way into the lavish parlours or splendid dining rooms of a bourgeois residence.
To meet the consumer demands of the growing bourgeois class, The Dutch Republic developed a lively art market. The Republic numbered hundreds of artists. The competition was highly demanding. Artists specialised in a particular subject or theme to earn a reasonable living. They painted marine scenes, genre paintings, ice skating scenes, architectural works, merry companies, or still lifes. Just for the record, Rembrandt van Rijn, the most distinguished painter of the Dutch Golden Age, was an exception. He painted numerous subjects.
Left : Gerrit Lundens (1622 – 1686) – Boors Dancing in an Inn – oil on copper – 14.3 x 18.2 cm – Christie’s (2008) Right: Hans Vredeman de Vries /Dirk de Quade van Ravesteyn- Love Garden with Elegant Figures – 137 x 174 cm – Kunsthistorische Museum, Vienna
Music was a highly popular subject in 17th-century Dutch art. Dance, like music, was also an integral part of Dutch culture at all levels of society, and this reflected in the many dance images that appeared on the market. Dancers often appeared in Jan Steen’s work. Adriaen van Ostade, Jan Miense Molenaer, Richard Brakenburgh, Cornelis Dusart, and many others were famed for their peasant and tavern images. Other artists, Anthonie Palamedesz, Pieter Jansz Quast, and Gerard ter Borch, to name but a few, painted indoor and outdoor scenes of the affluent society at play. This short list only scratches the surface. You can roughly classify dance images into three categories: dancing peasants, dancing bourgeoisie, and aristocratic dance. Today’s post will introduce some artists who embodied dancing figures into their artworks and touch on the most prominent themes and subjects appearing in 17th-century art.
Dancing peasants was a prevalent theme. The paintings by the Flemish Pieter Bruegel, his peers, and his sons painted in the 16th and 17th-centuries are known to all. The tradition of the dancing peasant continued in the art of the Dutch Golden Age. Dutch and Flemish artists portrayed peasants dancing outside the tavern, dancing in an inn, at village fairs, and at weddings. There are images of solo dances, circle dances, line dances, and dancing couples. Some paintings are light-hearted, while others display wretched scenes of drunken boors fumbling around to the sound of a jolly fiddle. Peasants, though the subject of the painting, were not the artist’s clientele. Representations of peasants, vagabonds, boors, and beggars found their way into bourgeois homes as a conversation piece, but more than likely as a source of wry amusement.
Pieter de Bloot (1601 – 1658) – Peasants Dancing in a Barn – oil on oak – 44.6 x 61 cm – 1634 – Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest
Pieter de Bloot, an artist who worked in Rotterdam, presents a frolicsome couple dancing in an indoor tavern scene. The light catches the couple as they perform a coarse, animated dance. They are the brightest figures on the canvas, contrasting strongly with the fiddler lurching in the dark. Has this despondent-looking fellow been rejected? You can see a cupboard bed just behind the male peasant. This may be a wedding dance, or perhaps we find ourselves in a tavern of ill-repute. The artist has not placed the scattered cards, and the broken jug so predominately in the foreground without a specific purpose.
Outdoor peasant scenes were widespread and fashionable in both Dutch and Flemish art. Jan Steen’s boorish figures are seen drinking, dancing, caressing, and enjoying themselves in front of the local tavern. Our focus is drawn to a group of uncouth figures dancing in a circular formation. Their movements seem to be limited to tugging, heaving, and bumbling. Notwithstanding the roguish fun of these provincials, Jan Steen, a brilliant storyteller, leaves his audience with a conspicuous message. Are not the amorous dogs in the foreground and distant church unmistakable reminders of moral and religious obligations?
Jan Steen (1626 – 1679) – Peasants dancing at an inn – oil on panel – 40.2 x 57.5 cm – c.1646-48 – Mauritshuis, The Hague
For those merchants who wished to acquire a more refined painting for their parlour, an image of an elegant company provided the ideal alternative. These works mirrored the lifestyle of the upcoming society, presenting the well-off at leisure. The art market was enthusiastic. Anthonie Palamedesz., Pieter Codde, David Vinckboons, Pieter Jansz. Quast and Jacob A Duck are a few of the artists who painted the wealthy burghers enjoying a musical evening. In the scene shown below, the dancers are well-poised, sophisticated, and practice polite etiquette. They are attired in exquisite silks and brocades enhanced with delicate lace collars, beautifully rendered by Anthonie Palamedesz. (1601-1773), a painter born in Delft. The musician, you will have noticed, performs on an instrument befitting his stylish company.
Anthonie Palamedesz. (1601-1673) – An Elegant Company Making Merry in an Interior – oil on panel – 48 x 67 cm – date not given – originally Jacques Goudstikker collection, auctioned at Sotheby’s Amsterdam 2000
Despite the damnation of the church, dance was an essential part of the bourgeois lifestyle. To give an indication of the role of dance in Dutch society, it is interesting to mention that the commoner, Constantijn Huygens (1596 – 1687), secretary to the court of William of Orange, encouraged his sons to take fencing, riding, and dancing lessons. Dancing was an indispensable part of their education, imparting the all-important skills of poise, grace, and elegance. Dancing schools, regardless of opposition, popped up throughout the country. In the following painting by Pieter Codde (1599-1678) a dance master teaches an upper-class couple the art of social dancing. Codde, known for his genre pieces, places the scene in a sober, though privileged, setting. The handsome painting on the back wall, the large plush tablecloth, and the demure but expensive attire all certify the company’s excellent social standing. The upright stance, the demeanour, and the composure of this dancing couple are a far cry from Jan Steen’s boisterous peasants.
Pieter Codde (1599-1678) – The Dancing Lesson – 40 x 53 cm – oil on panel – 1627 – Musée du Louvre, Paris
A master of genre painting, the Dutch artist Gerard ter Borch (1617-1681), specialised in painting ladies and gentlemen conversing, drinking, making music, and dancing in elegant chambers. Ter Borch, like no other, is a wizard in the rendering of textures and surfaces. His figures are always impeccably dressed and draped in exquisite fabrics. The lady’s satin dress in The Dancing Couple appears to glow in the light.
Just for interest’s sake, I would like to compare the manner in which the 17th-century artist traditionally depicted polite and peasant dance. Polite dancers were illustrated as tall, slender figures, invariably poised in a gracious, upright stance. The dancer’s feet were evenly positioned on the floor, though occasionally the male dancer was known to decorously raise his leg and perform small jumps. These well-to-do figures always retain a dignified composure. Peasant dancers, as in the watercolour by Margareta de Heer (1600-1665), are voluminous and coarse. They readily fling their legs with abandon. Typically, the provincials dance robustly, bend their knees deeply, and slant their torso at a downward or sideways angle. Jumps, bounces, and leg kicks are part of their movement repertoire. The loutish dancers are energetic, briskly capering in an improvised, structureless dance.
Left: Gerard ter Borch – The Dancing Couple – oil on canvas – 76 x 68 cm – c.1660 – Polesden Lacey, The National Trust, Great Britain Right: attributed to Margareta de Heer – Peasants Dancing to the Music of the Hurdy-Gurdy Player – watercolour and gouache on vellum – 33.7 x 30.4 cm – date unknown – MutualArt
The 17th-century boasted few feminine artists. Judith Leyster (1609-1660), wife of Jan Miense Molenaer, was an outstanding artist. Music and musical instruments were a prominent feature in her work, but she, to my knowledge, never painted dance figures. The lesser-known artist Margareta de Heer, a painter of genre pieces and acclaimed for her illustrations of insects, flowers, sea life, and birds, was most probably the first feminine artist to paint dancers.
Artists working in The Dutch Republic rarely painted aristocratic dance. The subject was more common in Flemish art. In a subsequent post, I will discuss various Flemish images. For the time being, it suffices to mention the Antwerp-born artist Hieronymus Janssens (1624-1693), nicknamed Den Danser, renowned for his paintings of elegant groups celebrating music and dance. The following painting deserves a place in this post since it presents a lavish ball in the era of The Dutch Republic: Charles II, who spent his exile in The Hague, is dancing at a ball held in his honour. The Mauritshuis, today a prestigious art museum, hosted the royal celebration.
Hieronymus Janssens – Charles II Dancing at a Ball at Court – oil on canvas – 140.2 x 213.8 cm – c. 1660 – Queen’s Drawing Room, Windsor Castle – Royal Collection Trust
Images of aristocratic dance may have been uncommon, but images of the young and wealthy enjoying themselves at fashionable gatherings were all the more in demand. David Vinckboons (1576-before 1633), a Flemish painter who moved to The Dutch Republic after the Spanish occupation of Antwerp in 1585, introduced a new variety of genre painting, the gallant company. One of the earliest examples is The Fête Champêtre. The scene takes place in an idyllic park setting, featuring a magnificent castle, garden, and an exquisite fountain in the background. In the foreground, the affluent figures are drinking, dining, courting, making music, and dancing. The refined couple dances, as you would expect, in a beautifully poised manner. Other members of the party have relinquished their politeness. 17th-century art, even if ostensibly carefree, often conceals a moral innuendo. The information provided by the Rijksmuseum explains:
There are several elements indicating that this Fête champêtre should be regarded as a moralistic scene. They are the peacock pie, the playing cards and the gnawed bones lying on the ground, which are traditional symbols respectively of pride and lechery, a passion for gambling and the decay of the flesh.
David Vinckboons – Elegant Company in an Ornamental Garden / The Fête Champêtre – oil on panel – 28.5 x 43.6 cm –
c. 1610 – Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Hopefully, this introduction has provided an impression of the wide variety of dance-related paintings created during the Dutch Golden Age. I will look more closely at individual artists and at specific themes in subsequent posts. The next post discusses the fascinating world of Jan Steen.
DANCE IMAGES IN THE ART OF THE NETHERLANDS 
